Experimental cancer studies of chlorinated by-products

Chlorinated drinking water contains a number of different by-products formed during the chlorination process from organic matter. The carcinogenicity of only a fraction of them have been evaluated in experimental animals. The focus has been on compounds and groups of compounds that are most abundant in chlorinated drinking water or the in vitro toxicity data have suggested genotoxic potential. From trihalomethanes, chloroform causes liver tumors in mice and female rats and renal tumors in male mice and rats. Tumor formation by chloroform is strongly associated with cytotoxicity and regenerative cell proliferation in tissues and that has been considered to be one determinant of its carcinogenicity. From halogenic acetic acids, dichloroacetic acid (DCA) and trichlotoacetic acid (TCA) are hepatocarcinogenic in mice and DCA in male rats. Their genotoxicity is equivocal and nongenotoxic mechanisms, such as peroxisome proliferation and hypomethylation of DNA in the liver, likely contribute to tumor development. From chlorinated furanones (CHFs), 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (MX) is a multisite carcinogen in rats (e.g. in thyroid glands and liver) and it has caused DNA damage in vivo. MX may be a complete carcinogen because it also has promoter properties in vitro. Chlorinated drinking water may also contain brominated by-products providing the raw water contains bromide. At least some of them (bromodichloromethane, bromoform) have been shown to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals. Altogether, although several by-products have been shown to have carcinogenic potential in laboratory animals, it not yet possible to state which compounds or groups of by-products cause the cancer risk in chlorinated drinking water. The cellular mechanisms of their effects and these effects at low concentrations are still poorly understood. The few studies with mixtures of these by-products suggest that the mixture effects may be complex and unpredictable (inhibitory, additive, synergistic)