Freeze-thaw cycles promote vertical migration of metal oxide nanoparticles in soils

Highlights: • FTCs promote vertical migration of ENPs in soils. • CeO₂-NPs show the highest migration rate in soils. • ENPs exhibit the highest migration rate in black soil. • Lower freezing temperature and higher water content promote the transport of ENPs. • FTCs increase the movement of ENPs by increased contents and movement of colloids. Understanding the migration of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in soil is of great significance for evaluating the potential risks of ENPs to ecosystem. So far, their migration under freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs) has not been investigated. This study explored the impacts of FTCs on the migration of three commonly used ENPs, copper oxide (CuO-NPs), cerium oxide (CeO₂-NPs), and zinc oxide (ZnO-NPs), in three types of soil. After 32 FTC cycles, the highest migration rate of ENPs was found in black soil due to its higher clay particle content. CeO₂-NPs with low surface charge exhibited the highest mobility among three ENPs, which migrated to 9–11 cm layer with the concentration of 42.1 mg/kg in the black soil column. ZnO-NPs were less influenced by FTCs as they were adsorbed onto sand grains due to electrostatic interaction, which migrated to 3–5 cm layer with the concentration of 25.2 mg/kg in the black soil. Higher moisture contents (50% and 100%) resulted in increased migration depth of the ENPs in all soils. Lower freezing temperature (−25 °C) caused fragmentation of large soil particles and produced more clay colloids. FTCs promoted the movement of moisture, which penetrated the soil and thus facilitated the movement of ENPs by increasing the contents and movement of clay colloids. This work reveals the migration behavior of ENPs in soils in freeze-thaw period and provides insights into the fate and environmental risk of nanomaterial at middle and high latitudes.