Use of isotope ratio mass spectrometry to differentiate between endogenous steroids and synthetic homologues in cattle: A review

Graphical abstract: Scheme: Representation of the observed isotope ratios and the relation to exogenous and endogenous natural steroids. AS stands for "amount of steroid". Highlights: ► The difference between endogenous and exogenous steroids is thoroughly laid out. ► Factors influencing the carbon ratio and the use of Δ13C-values are explained. ► Implementation of GC/C/IRMS to detect steroid abuse in cattle is reviewed. ► Alternative methods and upcoming techniques are discussed. ► The differences and similarities with sports doping control are highlighted. -- Abstract: Although substantial technical advances have been achieved during the past decades to extend and facilitate the analysis of growth promoters in cattle, the detection of abuse of synthetic analogs of naturally occurring hormones has remained a challenging issue. When it became clear that the exogenous origin of steroid hormones could be traced based on the 13C/12C isotope ratio of the substances, GC/C/IRMS has been successfully implemented to this aim since the end of the past century. However, due to the costly character of the instrumental setup, the susceptibility of the equipment to errors and the complex and time consuming sample preparation, this method is up until now only applied by a limited number of laboratories. In this review, the general principles as well as the practical application of GC/C/IRMS to differentiate between endogenous steroids and exogenously synthesized homologous compounds in cattle will be discussed in detail, and will be placed next to other existing and to be developed methods based on isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Finally, the link will be made with the field of sports doping, where GC/C/IRMS has been established within the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) approved methods as the official technique to differentiate between exogenous and endogenous steroids over the past few years