Evaluating spatial distribution and seasonal variation of phthalates using passive air sampling in southern India

Usage of phthalates as plasticizers has resulted in worldwide occurrence and is becoming a serious concern to human health and environment. However, studies on phthalates in Indian atmosphere are lacking. Therefore, we studied the spatio-temporal trends of six major phthalates in Tamil Nadu, southern India, using passive air samplers. Phthalates were ubiquitously detected in all the samples and the average total phthalates found in decreasing order is pre-monsoon (61 ng m⁻³) > summer (52 ng m⁻³) > monsoon (17 ng m⁻³). Largely used phthalates, dibutylphthalate (DBP) and diethylhexlphthalate (DEHP) were predominantly found in all the seasons with contribution of 11–31% and 59–68%, respectively. The highest total phthalates was observed in summer at an urban location (836 ng m⁻³). Furthermore, through principal component analysis, potential sources were identified as emissions from additives of plasticizers in the polymer industry and the productions of adhesives, building materials and vinyl flooring. Although inhalation exposure of infants was higher than other population segments (toddlers, children and adults), exposure levels were found to be safe for people belonging to all ages based on reference dose (RfD) and tolerable daily intake (TDI) values. This study first attempted to report seasonal trend based on atmospheric monitoring using passive air sampling technique and exposure risk together. - Highlights: • Phthalate levels in the atmospheric air of southern India were up to 836 ng m⁻³. • The level was higher during pre-monsoon than summer and monsoon seasons. • DEHP and DBP were predominantly found in all the seasons. • Principle component analysis revealed emission of phthalates from multiple sources. • Infants' exposure to phthalates was two times higher than adults. - Seasonal distribution of atmospheric phthalates and associated inhalation risk has been observed in India.