Quantitative X-ray analysis of biological fluids: the microdroplet technique

X-ray microanalysis can be used to quantitatively determine the elemental composition of microvolumes of biological fluids. This article describes the various steps in preparation of microdroplets for analysis: The manufacturing of micropipettes, the preparation of the specimen support, the deposition of droplets on the support, shock-freezing, and lyophilization. Examples of common artifacts (incomplete rehydration prior to freezing or partial rehydration after lyophilization) are demonstrated. Analysis can be carried out either by wavelength-dispersive analysis, which is the most sensitive method, or by energy-dispersive analysis, which is more commonly available. The minimum detectable concentration is 0.05 mmol.liter-1 for 0.1-nl samples analyzed by wavelength-dispersive spectrometry and 0.5-1 mmol.liter-1 for samples analyzed by energy-dispersive spectrometry. A major problem, especially in wavelength-dispersive analysis, where high beam currents are used, is radiation damage to the specimen; in particular chloride (but also other elements) can be lost. Quantitative analysis requires the use of standard solutions with elemental concentration in the same range as those present in the specimen