Personal exposure to PM2.5 in five commuting modes under hazy and non-hazy conditions

Highlights: • Commuting PM_2.5 exposure depended largely on ambient concentrations in haze episodes. • Commuting PM_2.5 exposure was affected by local sources in non-haze conditions. • Active commuters inhaled a greater dose of PM_2.5 • Sealing windows can effectively reduce PM_2.5 exposure while driving. Effective reducing exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) during commuting can help lower the risk of adverse health effects therefrom; however, few studies have examined the influence of different background levels of air pollution—particularly in China where PM_2.5 concentrations are high globally. In this study, personal sampling was conducted to measure individual exposure during five different modes of commuting (bus, metro, car, bicycle and walking) in Shanghai, China. A total of 125 measurements were conducted for five days under haze and non-haze conditions, following which the corresponding doses of PM_2.5 inhaled were estimated. The mean concentrations (±standard deviation, SD, 1-min averaging) of background PM_2.5 were 155.9 (±98.7) μg/m³ during haze and 36.3 (±17.6) μg/m³ under the non-haze conditions. Under both conditions, active commuters were exposed to higher PM_2.5 concentrations than those using motorized commuting modes (Wilcoxon test, p < 0.01). Moreover, driving with closed windows and air conditioning effectively reduces the PM_2.5 concentrations in cars by 35 %–57 %. Cyclists inhaled the highest doses (539.8 ± 313.2 and 134.8 ± 71.3 μg/h under haze and non-haze conditions, respectively), whereas car drivers inhaled the lowest doses (28.8 ± 21.2 and 3.7 ± 2.6 μg/h under haze and non-haze conditions, respectively). Individual exposure to PM_2.5 during commuting varied with the modes; the discrepancy between the latter depended largely on the ambient concentration. Our findings provided evidence that traffic-related air pollution contributed to daily pollutant exposure and highlighted the importance of taking personal protective measures while commuting, particularly during haze.