Challenges in microbially and chelate-assisted phytoextraction of cadmium and lead – A review

Highlights: • Phytoremediation is an environmentally friendly way to remove heavy metals. • Microorganisms can be used to enhance removal efficiency but have limited capacity. • EDTA has been used but due to its toxicity, alternate amendments are needed. • An integrated approach for a faster and efficient remediation of Cd/Pb is needed. Cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) are ubiquitously present in surface soils, due to anthropogenic activities, causing threat to ecological and human health because of their carcinogenic nature. They accumulate in large quantities in the environment and affect negatively soil microbiota, plants, animals, and humans. For the cleanup of Cd/Pb polluted soils, different plant species have been studied. Many plants have shown the potential to hyperaccumulate Cd/Pb in their above-ground tissues. These plants decrease soil pH by root exudation or by releasing H⁺ ions, and this, in turn, increases the bioavailability of Cd/Pb for plant uptake. Different environmental processes related to soil organic matter, microorganisms, pH, genetic modifications, and various soil-borne chelating agents affect the potential of phytoremediation technology. Review papers trying to identify a single factor influencing the phytoremediation of heavy metals are available in the literature. However, an integrated approach dealing with different factors involved in the remediation of both metals is scarcely discussed. The main focus of this review is to discuss the phytoextraction technique for Cd/Pb removal from contaminated sites along with detoxification mechanisms. Further, the challenges in the Cd/Pb phytoextraction and different options available to cope with these challenges are also discussed. The update on the relevant findings on the use of microorganisms and amendments in enhancing the Cd/Pb phytoextraction is also provided. Finally, the areas to be explored in future research for the removal of Cd/Pb by integrated strategies have been discussed.