Environmental fate, ecotoxicity biomarkers, and potential health effects of micro- and nano-scale plastic contamination

Highlights: • This review addresses the deficiency of data on the health risks posed by plastics. • The transfer of MPs and NPs takes place across trophic levels. • We emphasize the significance of adsorption between organic/inorganic contaminants and MPs/NPs. • The prospects for interdisciplinary ecological health-risk assessment are described. In recent decades, the quantity of plastic waste products has increased tremendously. As plastic wastes are released into the environment, they exert harmful effects on biota and human health. In this work, a comprehensive review is offered to describe the physical and chemical characteristics of microplastics and nanoplastics in relation to their fate, microbial ecology, transport, and ecotoxic behavior. Present discussion is expanded further to cover the biochemical, physiological, and molecular mechanisms controlling the environmental fate, ecotoxicity, and human health hazards of micro- and nanoplastics. The risks of their exposure to microbes, plants, animals, and human health are also reviewed with special emphasis. Finally, a direction for future interdisciplinary research in materials and polymer science is also discussed to help control the pollution caused by micro- and nanoplastics.