Detonation synthesis of carbon nano-onions via liquid carbon condensation

Transit through the carbon liquid phase has significant consequences for the subsequent formation of solid nanocarbon detonation products. We report dynamic measurements of liquid carbon condensation and solidification into nano-onions over ~200 ns by analysis of time-resolved, small-angle X-ray scattering data acquired during detonation of a hydrogen-free explosive, DNTF (3,4-bis(3-nitrofurazan-4-yl)furoxan). Further, thermochemical modeling predicts a direct liquid to solid graphite phase transition for DNTF products ~200 ns post-detonation. Solid detonation products were collected and characterized by high-resolution electron microscopy to confirm the abundance of carbon nano-onions with an average diameter of ~10 nm, matching the dynamic measurements. We analyze other carbon-rich explosives by similar methods to systematically explore different regions of the carbon phase diagram traversed during detonation. Our results suggest a potential pathway to the efficient production of carbon nano-onions, while offering insight into the phase transformation kinetics of liquid carbon under extreme pressures and temperatures.