Tritium and ¹⁴C in the environment and nuclear facilities: Sources and analytical methods

Tritium and ¹⁴C are two most important radionuclides released from nuclear facilities to the environment, and ¹⁴C contributes dominant radiation dose to the population around nuclear power plants. This paper presents an overview of the production, pathway, species and levels of tritium and ¹⁴C in nuclear facilities, mainly nuclear power plants. The methods for sampling and collection of different species of tritium and ¹⁴C in the discharge gas from the stack in the nuclear facilities, atmosphere of the nuclear facilities and environment are presented, and the features of different methods are reviewed. The on-line monitoring methods of gaseous tritium and ¹⁴C in air and laboratory measurement methods for sensitive determination of tritium and ¹⁴C in collected samples, water and environmental solid samples are also discussed in detailed. Meanwhile, the challenges in the determination and speciation analysis of tritium and ¹⁴C are also highlighted