Generation of reactive oxygen species by a novel berberine–bile acid analog mediates apoptosis in hepatocarcinoma SMMC-7721 cells

Graphical abstract: - Highlights: • Anticancer effects of B4, a novel berberine–bile acid analog, were tested. • B4 inhibited cell proliferation in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. • It also stimulated mitochondrial ROS production and membrane depolarization. • Effects of B4 were inhibited by a non-specific ROS scavenger. • Regulation of ROS generation may be a strategy for treating hepatic carcinoma. - Abstract: 2,3-Methenedioxy-9-O-(3′α,7′α-dihydroxy-5′β-cholan-24′-propy-lester) berberine (B4) is a novel berberine–bile acid analog synthesized in our laboratory. Previously, we showed that B4 exerted greater cytotoxicity than berberine in several human cancer cell lines. Therefore, we further evaluated the mechanism governing its anticancer actions in hepatocellular carcinoma SMMC-7721 cells. B4 inhibited the proliferation of SMMC-7721 cells, and stimulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial membrane depolarization; anti-oxidant capacity was reduced. B4 also induced the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria to the cytosol and an increase in poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage products, reflective of caspase-3 activation. Moreover, B4 induced the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and a rise in DNA fragmentation. Pretreatment with the anti-oxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibited B4-mediated effects, including cytotoxicity, ROS production, mitochondrial membrane depolarization increase in intracellular Ca²⁺, cytochrome c release, PARP cleavage, and AIF translocation. Our data suggest that B4 induces ROS-triggered caspase-dependent and caspase-independent apoptosis pathways in SMMC-7721 cells and that ROS production may be a specific potential strategy for treating hepatic carcinoma