From Volta to Li-ion batteries. The rise of lithium batteries

In the long history of electrochemical energy storage systems (primary and secondary batteries), the arrival of lithium metal, then lithium-ion batteries marked a turning point. This battery technology using a negative electrode with high reductive power and consequently a non-aqueous electrolyte generates, when combined with an appropriate positive electrode, an electromotive force of about 4 V. This high voltage is a major advantage for storing a large amount of electrical energy relative to the mass and volume of the (secondary) battery. Thanks to the optimised selection of materials and improvements made in manufacturing techniques since the first Li-ion batteries were launched onto the market in 1991, energy densities have reached around 280 Wh. kg^-1 and 700 Wh. L^-1. These are by far the highest values obtained for rechargeable systems operating at ambient temperature. The first Li-ion batteries were initially designed and marketed by Sony (and Asahi Kasei) to power camcorders. Since then, this technology has synergistically accompanied the explosive growth of the portable electronics market and has rapidly replaced the most advanced aqueous battery technology, nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), in these applications. Moreover, the key role played by this technology in the design and manufacture of portable electronic equipment, combined with the quasi-monopoly that the Asian industry has had on these markets since the end of the 1980's, quickly led to the relevant firms integrating the manufacture of Li-ion batteries. This strategic positioning largely explains the current pre-eminence of Japanese, Korean and more recently Chinese battery manufacturers over this production. At the same time, in a global context that demands a lower use of fossil fuels and the use of renewable energy sources, the question of electricity storage is becoming increasingly important. Until very recently considered too expensive and insufficiently safe, Li-ion batteries today benefit from the industry's technological maturity and are increasingly penetrating the market for electric and hybrid vehicles and large-scale stationary storage, both of these applications being closely linked through the possible use of grid-connected large fleets of electrified vehicles, whose embarked batteries will be used, beyond their main use for electrical mobility, as large-scale, decentralized and bi-directional energy buffers for ENR energy production storage and to bring services to the electrical power grid as well. These new application areas, involving higher production volumes compared to portable electronics, will undoubtedly impose new developments on Li-ion technology, and are now driving the search for even more efficient 'post-Li-ion' systems. (authors)