[en] Highlights: ► Super-capacitors are used to store regenerative braking energy in a metro network. ► A novel approach is proposed to model easily and accurately the metro network. ► An efficient approach is proposed to calculate the required super-capacitors. ► Maximum energy saving is around 44% at off-peak period and 42% at peak period. ► Benefit/cost analyses are performed for the suggested ESS. - Abstract: In this paper, the stationary super-capacitors are used to store a metro network regenerative braking energy. In order to estimate the required energy storage systems (ESSs), line 3 of Tehran metro network is modeled through a novel approach, in peak and off-peak conditions based on the real data obtained from Tehran metro office. A useful method is proposed to predict the maximum instantaneous regenerative energy which is delivered to each station before applying ESS and based on that the ESS configuration for each station is determined. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed ESS is confirmed by economic evaluations and benefit/cost analyses on line 3 of Tehran metro network.

[en] Highlights: • The energy flow of an electric vehicle with regenerative brake is analyzed. • Methodology for measuring the regen brake contribution is discussed. • Evaluation parameters of regen brake contribution are proposed. • Vehicle tests are carried out on chassis dynamometer. • Test results verify the evaluation method and parameters proposed. - Abstract: This article discusses the mechanism and evaluation methods of contribution brought by regenerative braking to electric vehicle’s energy efficiency improvement. The energy flow of an electric vehicle considering the braking energy regeneration was analyzed. Then, methodologies for measuring the contribution made by regenerative brake to vehicle energy efficiency improvement were introduced. Based on the energy flow analyzed, two different evaluation parameters were proposed. Vehicle tests were carried out on chassis dynamometer under typical driving cycles with three different control strategies. The experimental results the difference between the proposed two evaluation parameters, and demonstrated the feasibility and effectiveness of the evaluation methodologies proposed

[en] Highlights: • A regenerative braking system is designed for a rear-driven electric minivan. • A new control strategy coordinating energy efficiency and braking feel is proposed. • The control strategy is verified by simulation and hardware-in-loop (HIL) tests. • The proposed control strategy offers higher regeneration efficiency. - Abstract: As of to 2012, minivan ownership stood at 20 million units in China, accounting for 16% of the passenger car market. In this article, comprehensive research is carried out on the design and control of a regenerative braking system for a rear-driven electrified minivan. For improving the regeneration efficiency by as much as possible, a new regenerative braking control strategy called “modified control strategy” is proposed. Additionally, a control strategy called “baseline control strategy” is introduced as a comparative control strategy. Simulations and hardware-in-loop (HIL) tests are carried out. The results of the simulations and the HIL tests show that the modified control strategy offers considerably higher regeneration efficiency than the baseline control strategy. In normal deceleration braking, the regeneration efficiency of the modified control strategy reaches 47%, 15% higher than that of the baseline control strategy. In addition, improvement in the fuel economy of electric vehicles operating on the ECE driving cycle and enhanced with the modified control strategy is greater than 10%, which is 3% higher than that with the baseline control strategy

[en] Highlights: • A new anti-idling system for refrigerator trucks is proposed. • This system enables regenerative braking. • An innovative two-level controller is proposed for the power management system. • A fast dynamic programming technique to find real-time SOC trajectory is proposed. • In addition to idling elimination, this system reduces fuel consumption. - Abstract: Engine idling of refrigerator trucks during loading and unloading contributes to greenhouse gas emissions due to their increased fuel consumption. This paper proposes a new anti-idling system that uses two sources of power, battery and engine-driven generator, to run the compressor of the refrigeration system. Therefore, idling can be eliminated because the engine is turned OFF and the battery supplies auxiliary power when the vehicle is stopped for loading or unloading. This system also takes advantage of regenerative braking for increased fuel savings. The power management of this system needs to satisfy two requirements: it must minimize fuel consumption in the whole cycle and must ensure that the battery has enough energy for powering the refrigeration system when the engine is OFF. To meet these objectives, a two-level controller is proposed. In the higher level of this controller, a fast dynamic programming technique that utilizes extracted statistical features of drive and duty cycles of a refrigerator truck is used to find suboptimal values of the initial and final SOC of any two consecutive loading/unloading stops. The lower level of the controller employs an adaptive equivalent fuel consumption minimization (A-ECMS) to determine the split ratio of auxiliary power between the generator and battery for each segment with initial and final SOC obtained by the high-level controller. The simulation results confirm that this new system can eliminate idling of refrigerator trucks and reduce their fuel consumption noticeably such that the cost of replacing components is recouped in a short period of time.

[en] Hybrid vehicles have become a popular alternative to conventional powertrain architectures by offering improved fuel efficiency along with a range of environmental benefits. Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles (HHV) offer one approach to hybridization with many benefits over competing technologies. Among these benefits are lower component costs, more environmentally friendly construction materials, and the ability to recover a greater quantity of energy during regenerative braking which make HHVs partially well suited to urban environments. In order to further the knowledge base regarding HHVs, this paper explores the thermodynamic characteristics of such a system. A system model is detailed for both the hydraulic and thermal components of a closed circuit hydraulic hybrid transmission following the FTP-72 driving cycle. Among the new techniques proposed in this paper is a novel method for capturing rapid thermal transients. This paper concludes by comparing the results of this model with experimental data gathered on a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) transmission dynamometer possessing the same architecture, components, and driving cycle used within the simulation model. This approach can be used for several applications such as thermal stability analysis of HHVs, optimal thermal management, and analysis of the system's thermodynamic efficiency. - Highlights: • Thermal modeling for HHVs is introduced. • A model for the hydraulic and thermal system is developed for HHVs. • A novel method for capturing rapid thermal transients is proposed. • The thermodynamic system diagram of a series HHV is predicted.

[en] Highlights: • Operating characteristics of conventional and hybrid electric buses were examined. • Recovery of braking energy offers an excellent opportunity to improve fuel economy. • Speed and altitude profiles of routes have dramatic impacts on the energy recovery. • Capacity of the auxiliary power source has a dramatic impact on the energy recovery. • Round-trip efficiency of the regenerative braking system was calculated to be 27%. - Abstract: The basic operating characteristics of a conventional bus (CB) and a hybrid electric bus (HEB) were examined under urban driving conditions. To perform this examination, real-time operating data from the buses were collected on the Campus-Return route of the Sakarya Municipality. The main characteristics examined were the traction, braking, engine, engine generator unit (EGU), motor/generator (M/G), and ultracapacitor (Ucap) energies and efficiencies of the buses. The route elevation profile and the frequency of stop-and-go operations of the buses were found to have dramatic impacts on the braking and traction energies of the buses. The declining profile of the Campus-Return route provided an excellent opportunity for energy recovery by the regenerative braking system of the HEB. However, owing to the limits on the capacities and efficiencies of the hybrid drive train components and the Ucap, the bus braking energies were not recovered completely. Braking energies as high as 2.2 kW h per micro-trip were observed, but less than 1 kW h of braking energy per micro-trip was converted to electricity by the M/G; the rest of the braking energy was wasted in frictional braking. The maximum energy recovered and stored in the Ucap per micro-trip was 0.5 kW h, but the amount of energy recovered and stored per micro-trip was typically less than 0.2 kW h for the entire route. The cumulative braking energy recovered and stored in the Ucap for the Campus-Return route was 52% of the available brake energy, which was 13.02 kW h. Consequently, the round-trip efficiency of the regenerative braking system, between the wheels and Ucap, was determined to be 27%. Finally, although the brake engine energy (BEE) of the CB was 1.18 times higher than its positive traction energy (PTE), the BEE of the HEB was only 1.07 times higher than its PTE. In fact, it is normal to expect the BEE to be higher than the PTE owing to power train losses, but the energy recovered by the regenerative braking system was found to cover most of the power train losses and even improve the energy efficiency of the HEB

[en] An energy management system with an electronic gearshift and regenerative braking is presented to improve the gross efficiency and driving range of an electric scooter, driven directly by a four-phase axial-flux DC brushless wheel motor. The integration of stator windings, batteries, ultracapacitors, and a digital controller constitutes an energy management system, which features smooth electronic gear shifting and regenerative braking. The gross efficiency of the experimental scooter is improved in the drivable range by 20% with respect to that without regenerative braking. The battery-to-wheel efficiency was also above 70% for both low- and high-speed gears.

[en] Highlights: • An insightful overview of energy usage in urban rail systems is given. • The principal measures to reduce urban rail energy consumption are appraised. • A methodology is proposed to help implement energy saving schemes in urban rail. • Regenerative braking is shown to offer the greatest energy saving potential. - Abstract: There is increasing interest in the potential of urban rail to reduce the impact of metropolitan transportation due to its high capacity, reliability and absence of local emissions. However, in a context characterised by increasing capacity demands and rising energy costs, and where other transport modes are considerably improving their environmental performance, urban rail must minimise its energy use without affecting its service quality. Urban rail energy consumption is defined by a wide range of interdependent factors; therefore, a system wide perspective is required, rather than focusing on energy savings at subsystem level. This paper contributes to the current literature by proposing an holistic approach to reduce the overall energy consumption of urban rail. Firstly, a general description of this transport mode is given, which includes an assessment of its typical energy breakdown. Secondly, a comprehensive appraisal of the main practices, strategies and technologies currently available to minimise its energy use is provided. These comprise: regenerative braking, energy-efficient driving, traction losses reduction, comfort functions optimisation, energy metering, smart power management and renewable energy micro-generation. Finally, a clear, logical methodology is described to optimally define and implement energy saving schemes in urban rail systems. This includes general guidelines for a qualitative assessment and comparison of measures alongside a discussion on the principal interdependences between them. As a hypothetical example of application, the paper concludes that the energy consumption in existing urban rail systems could be reduced by approximately 25–35% through the implementation of energy-optimised timetables, energy-efficient driving strategies, improved control of comfort functions in vehicles and wayside energy storage devices

[en] Highlights: ► VSP correlates well with the engine use, regenerative braking and boost setting. ► Wankel engine vehicle is the most efficient in urban driving. ► Over-expanded engine vehicle is the most efficient in annual combined use. ► The higher the annual urban commuting driving the lower is energy consumption. ► Over-expanded solution has 5.7% WTW less energy usage and 8.8% less CO₂ emissions. - Abstract: This paper aims to compare the energy efficiency and CO₂ emissions of four different range extender engine solutions deployed in the same baseline series hybrid vehicle, under a combination of driving scenarios aiming to be representative of typical driving instead of standard cycles. Baseline vehicle is roughly based on Chevy VOLT/Opel Ampera. The baseline internal combustion engine is replaced by an over-expanded cycle engine, Wankel engine and microturbine, with respective generator and exhaust after treatment. Weight savings are compensated by introducing additional battery modules, maintaining the original baseline vehicle curb weight. Vehicle Specific Power (VSP) is used for driving cycle analysis and as explanatory variable for energy consumption and CO₂ emissions variations. Upstream fuel energy and CO₂ emissions of gasoline/diesel and electricity are regarded. Average VSP correlates with variation of the percentage of engine off, potential regenerative braking energy and eco/boost operation. Positive wheel energy correlates with energy consumption and electric autonomy adequately. The vehicle with the lightest engine (Wankel) and largest battery shows to be the most efficient in urban driving (when the engine does not have to work), while the vehicle with the highest efficient engine (over-expanded) and with dual eco/boost setting is the most efficient during the charge sustaining operation and in annual combined use.

[en] Highlights: • A braking energy regeneration system has been designed for a fuel cell bus. • Control strategy coordinating energy efficiency and brake safety is proposed. • The system and control strategy proposed are experimentally verified. • Based on test results, energy efficiency of the FCB is improved greatly. - Abstract: This paper presents the braking energy regeneration control of a fuel cell hybrid electric bus. The configuration of the regenerative braking system based on a pneumatic braking system was proposed. To recapture the braking energy and improve the fuel economy, a control strategy coordinating the regenerative brake and the pneumatic brake was designed and applied in the FCHB. Brake safety was also guaranteed by the control strategy when the bus encounters critical driving situations. Fuel economy tests were carried out under China city bus typical driving cycle. And hardware-in-the-loop tests of the brake safety of the FCHB under proposed control strategy were also accomplished. Test results indicate that the present approach provides an improvement in fuel economy of the fuel cell hybrid electric bus and guarantees the brake safety in the meantime