[en] Highlights: ► Super-capacitors are used to store regenerative braking energy in a metro network. ► A novel approach is proposed to model easily and accurately the metro network. ► An efficient approach is proposed to calculate the required super-capacitors. ► Maximum energy saving is around 44% at off-peak period and 42% at peak period. ► Benefit/cost analyses are performed for the suggested ESS. - Abstract: In this paper, the stationary super-capacitors are used to store a metro network regenerative braking energy. In order to estimate the required energy storage systems (ESSs), line 3 of Tehran metro network is modeled through a novel approach, in peak and off-peak conditions based on the real data obtained from Tehran metro office. A useful method is proposed to predict the maximum instantaneous regenerative energy which is delivered to each station before applying ESS and based on that the ESS configuration for each station is determined. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed ESS is confirmed by economic evaluations and benefit/cost analyses on line 3 of Tehran metro network.

[en] Highlights: • The energy flow of an electric vehicle with regenerative brake is analyzed. • Methodology for measuring the regen brake contribution is discussed. • Evaluation parameters of regen brake contribution are proposed. • Vehicle tests are carried out on chassis dynamometer. • Test results verify the evaluation method and parameters proposed. - Abstract: This article discusses the mechanism and evaluation methods of contribution brought by regenerative braking to electric vehicle’s energy efficiency improvement. The energy flow of an electric vehicle considering the braking energy regeneration was analyzed. Then, methodologies for measuring the contribution made by regenerative brake to vehicle energy efficiency improvement were introduced. Based on the energy flow analyzed, two different evaluation parameters were proposed. Vehicle tests were carried out on chassis dynamometer under typical driving cycles with three different control strategies. The experimental results the difference between the proposed two evaluation parameters, and demonstrated the feasibility and effectiveness of the evaluation methodologies proposed

[en] An effective regenerative braking control strategy can increase the energy recovery efficiency of electric vehicles. Through the analysis of the braking force distribution constraint conditions of electric vehicles, under the stable working conditions to ensure that the wheels are not locked, the braking force is distributed to the driving wheels as much as possible, and the front and rear wheel braking force distribution control lines are proposed and distributed according to the braking force. The control line has a control strategy in place. The ADVISOR software was used to build the electric vehicle model, and the control strategy was embedded in it. The results show that compared with the ADVISOR braking force distribution strategy, the braking energy recovery rate and battery life are improved. Verify the effectiveness of the control strategy. (paper)

[en] For verify control strategies in the course of developing hybrid electric vehicle, a kind of test bed was developed. Four removable wheels was used as test best’s supporting, all powertrain and control units of true vehicle were contained in the test bed. At the same time, the test bed was connected with two driving wheels. Chassis dynamometer was used to simulate road surface, was connected and fixed with the test bed. For applying different control strategies, dSPACE system was used as real-time control component. Some characteristics tests can be done using the test bed, such as dynamic, economic, discharge and regenerative braking. Test of regenerative braking was done, the test results showed that the test bed can satisfy requirements. (paper)

[en] In view of the shortage of cruising range of current electric vehicles, the research on the regenerative braking system of electric vehicles has been carried out. Aiming at improving energy utilization rate, combined with the working characteristics of electric motor and battery, a regenerative braking control strategy based on braking intensity is proposed. The control strategy model is built in MATLAB/Simulink firstly, and then the control strategy is verified by the integrated simulation of AVL CRUISE and MATLAB. The simulation results show that the energy utilization rate of the proposed control strategy under custom mild and moderate braking conditions can reach 34.8% and 21.5% respectively. (paper)

[en] Highlights: • A new anti-idling system for refrigerator trucks is proposed. • This system enables regenerative braking. • An innovative two-level controller is proposed for the power management system. • A fast dynamic programming technique to find real-time SOC trajectory is proposed. • In addition to idling elimination, this system reduces fuel consumption. - Abstract: Engine idling of refrigerator trucks during loading and unloading contributes to greenhouse gas emissions due to their increased fuel consumption. This paper proposes a new anti-idling system that uses two sources of power, battery and engine-driven generator, to run the compressor of the refrigeration system. Therefore, idling can be eliminated because the engine is turned OFF and the battery supplies auxiliary power when the vehicle is stopped for loading or unloading. This system also takes advantage of regenerative braking for increased fuel savings. The power management of this system needs to satisfy two requirements: it must minimize fuel consumption in the whole cycle and must ensure that the battery has enough energy for powering the refrigeration system when the engine is OFF. To meet these objectives, a two-level controller is proposed. In the higher level of this controller, a fast dynamic programming technique that utilizes extracted statistical features of drive and duty cycles of a refrigerator truck is used to find suboptimal values of the initial and final SOC of any two consecutive loading/unloading stops. The lower level of the controller employs an adaptive equivalent fuel consumption minimization (A-ECMS) to determine the split ratio of auxiliary power between the generator and battery for each segment with initial and final SOC obtained by the high-level controller. The simulation results confirm that this new system can eliminate idling of refrigerator trucks and reduce their fuel consumption noticeably such that the cost of replacing components is recouped in a short period of time.

[en] Highlights: • A regenerative braking system is designed for a rear-driven electric minivan. • A new control strategy coordinating energy efficiency and braking feel is proposed. • The control strategy is verified by simulation and hardware-in-loop (HIL) tests. • The proposed control strategy offers higher regeneration efficiency. - Abstract: As of to 2012, minivan ownership stood at 20 million units in China, accounting for 16% of the passenger car market. In this article, comprehensive research is carried out on the design and control of a regenerative braking system for a rear-driven electrified minivan. For improving the regeneration efficiency by as much as possible, a new regenerative braking control strategy called “modified control strategy” is proposed. Additionally, a control strategy called “baseline control strategy” is introduced as a comparative control strategy. Simulations and hardware-in-loop (HIL) tests are carried out. The results of the simulations and the HIL tests show that the modified control strategy offers considerably higher regeneration efficiency than the baseline control strategy. In normal deceleration braking, the regeneration efficiency of the modified control strategy reaches 47%, 15% higher than that of the baseline control strategy. In addition, improvement in the fuel economy of electric vehicles operating on the ECE driving cycle and enhanced with the modified control strategy is greater than 10%, which is 3% higher than that with the baseline control strategy

[en] The purpose of this study is to find the most eligible battery capacity for ultra-compact electric vehicle. Lithium-Ion batteries configuration is designed and examined for the research. Physical characteristics of the vehicle and motor assign battery capacity. The battery must be able to attain certain length of track and to utilize regenerative braking method. Designed battery will be examined by adjusting loading variations and regenerative braking method with specified track length. The performance of the battery is analyzed with and without controller used during certain experiments. The obtained results emphasize the designed battery performances throughout variations of loading and regenerative braking method applied. During performance test in the field, the battery shows that the average discharge current is inversed to the average voltage during constant and varied velocity tests. Moreover, the battery velocity rises when the regenerative braking method is applied. The throughout experiment will be compared and analyzed using SIMULINK. (paper)

[en] Highlights: • A new regenerative braking system is designed. • A hierarchical control strategy based on MPC is proposed. • A novel semi-empirical battery aging model is proposed based on experiment data. • The battery aging is considered in regenerative braking control. Regenerative braking is a key technology for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) to improve fuel economy, and it is a multi-objective control problem, which should ensure vehicle braking safety, recover more energy, and protect components from aging. As is known, battery is the most sensitive component in hybrid powertrain, so a large recover current can cause damage to the battery and reduce its life. However, the damage to is usually ignored in regenerative braking. Therefore, this paper proposed a hierarchical control strategy with battery aging consideration to solve the problem. In the up-level controller, the control targets are to recover more energy and minimize aging of the battery in general braking mode, and ensuring the vehicle braking safety in emergency braking mode at the same time. The low-level controller receives the commands of the up-level controller, and controls the pneumatic braking system and the electric motor (EM). The constraints of maximum EM torque and maximum battery charging power are set to protect the EM and the battery. Simulation tests are designed to indicate the effects of regenerative braking on battery aging and the control effectiveness of the proposed method, and controller-in-the-loop tests are carried out to verify the real-time calculation performance.

[en] Highlights: • Operating characteristics of conventional and hybrid electric buses were examined. • Recovery of braking energy offers an excellent opportunity to improve fuel economy. • Speed and altitude profiles of routes have dramatic impacts on the energy recovery. • Capacity of the auxiliary power source has a dramatic impact on the energy recovery. • Round-trip efficiency of the regenerative braking system was calculated to be 27%. - Abstract: The basic operating characteristics of a conventional bus (CB) and a hybrid electric bus (HEB) were examined under urban driving conditions. To perform this examination, real-time operating data from the buses were collected on the Campus-Return route of the Sakarya Municipality. The main characteristics examined were the traction, braking, engine, engine generator unit (EGU), motor/generator (M/G), and ultracapacitor (Ucap) energies and efficiencies of the buses. The route elevation profile and the frequency of stop-and-go operations of the buses were found to have dramatic impacts on the braking and traction energies of the buses. The declining profile of the Campus-Return route provided an excellent opportunity for energy recovery by the regenerative braking system of the HEB. However, owing to the limits on the capacities and efficiencies of the hybrid drive train components and the Ucap, the bus braking energies were not recovered completely. Braking energies as high as 2.2 kW h per micro-trip were observed, but less than 1 kW h of braking energy per micro-trip was converted to electricity by the M/G; the rest of the braking energy was wasted in frictional braking. The maximum energy recovered and stored in the Ucap per micro-trip was 0.5 kW h, but the amount of energy recovered and stored per micro-trip was typically less than 0.2 kW h for the entire route. The cumulative braking energy recovered and stored in the Ucap for the Campus-Return route was 52% of the available brake energy, which was 13.02 kW h. Consequently, the round-trip efficiency of the regenerative braking system, between the wheels and Ucap, was determined to be 27%. Finally, although the brake engine energy (BEE) of the CB was 1.18 times higher than its positive traction energy (PTE), the BEE of the HEB was only 1.07 times higher than its PTE. In fact, it is normal to expect the BEE to be higher than the PTE owing to power train losses, but the energy recovered by the regenerative braking system was found to cover most of the power train losses and even improve the energy efficiency of the HEB